🥃 An Introduction to the World of Whiskey - History, Ingredients, and Process

If you're reading this, that means you've more than likely been bit by the whiskey bug. Maybe one of your good friends mentioned that they have bourbon "Collection". Maybe on a work trip you met someone who had a lot to say about Scotch. Whatever the reason or the occasion, the world of whiskey has much to offer. Much like beer and wine, making great whiskey is both an art and a science, with great makers displaying their skill through product excellence and savvy consumers rising to appreciate it. In moderation, Whiskey can be a safe and easy topic for conversations on many an occasion, an excuse to get together, and even a hobby. Whiskey centric groups on Facebook, Reddit , Twitter, and others are often very welcoming and vibrant communities. Bottom line, Whiskey is about human connection as much as it is great tasting booze. 

What is Whiskey?

Whisky or whiskey is a type of liquor made from a fermented grain mash that is then distilled to increase its concentration. We should say that "Whiskey" is the predominant spelling in the US and Ireland, while "Whisky" without the "e" dominates the remainder of the world. There are exceptions to this, notably Maker's Mark which also uses the classical whisky spelling. On this blog, we will typically use the "ey" spelling when talking about spirits of American or Irish origin and the sans-e spelling for other products. 

Whiskey is first mentioned in history in the Annals of Clonmacnoise in a story that tells of a chieftain drinking a large swig of Agua Vitae (water of life) and perishing in around 1405. In Scotland, the first evidence of whisky production comes from an entry in the Exchequer Rolls of 1495 where malt is dispatched "To Friar John Cor, by order of the king, to make aqua vitae". Even older notes suggest distillation activities undertaken by monks in Ireland may have been the first major foray into spirits,. the Gaelic uisce beatha meaning "water of life". Products of the time were largely unaged and quite different from those consumed today. 

Ingredients of Whiskey

Barley, corn, rye, and wheat are the main ingredients of Whiskey in addition to water and yeast. These grains may be malted which simply means to soak them in water until they germinate at which point the germination is stopped through the application of hot air. This serves to create the enzymes (α-amylase, β-amylase) to turn the grains' starches into various of sugars, including monosaccharide glucose, disaccharide maltose, trisaccharide maltotriose, and other higher sugars like maltodextrines. It also has the benefit of generating other enzymes called Proteases that break down the proteins in the grain to be better used by the yeast. Much like beer, the ratio of the various grains/ingredients and the type of yeast used can have a large impact on the flavor. 

Process of Whiskey Making

How do you feel about oatmeal? That's essentially how the whiskey making process starts. 

Mashing: Grain is mixed with hot water in a container called a mash tun. This mashing process allows the enzymes released from the malting process to convert the remaining starches in the grain into more fermentable sugars. In whiskeys of styles that allow for the mixing of multiple grains, you may see the "mash bill" mentioned which is simply the type and ratio of grains used in the mash. Sticking with our Maker's Mark example, they are known for using a mash bill that is 70% corn, 16% wheat, and 14% barley.

Fermentation: Yeast is introduced to the sugary liquid, now called "wort." The yeast consumes the sugars and produces alcohol (ethanol and others) and carbon dioxide.

Distillation: The fermented wort, now containing a modest amount of alcohol (around 5-8%), is transferred to a still.  Distillation separates the alcohol from the wort based on the difference in boiling points (ethanol boils at a lower temperature than water). By heating the wort, the alcohol evaporates first and rises to be captured and cooled, now in a much higher concentration to to having left most of the water behind. Many spirits undergo this process multiple times (Irish Whiskey is triple distilled while Vodka may be distilled as many as ten times).

Whiskey stills are typically made of copper as it removes sulfur-based compounds from the alcohol that would make it otherwise unpleasant to drink. Some modern stills are made of stainless steel with copper innards (piping, for example, will be lined with copper along with copper plate inlays along the inside). The simplest standard distillation apparatus is known as a pot still, consisting of a single heated chamber and a vessel to collect purified alcohol (looking somewhat like a large teapot).

On the other hand, column stills are frequently used in the production of grain whisky and are the most commonly used type of still in the production of bourbon and other American whiskeys. Column stills behave like a series of single pot stills, formed into a long vertical tube. These multiple configuration stills can yield a vapor alcohol content of up to 95.6%, significantly higher than their pot configuration counterparts. 

Maturation: The newly distilled whiskey, relatively colorless and often referred to as "White Dog", is placed in wooden casks to age, typically used bourbon barrels or sherry casks. These casks have typically been toasted or burned on the inside to various degrees which can also impact the flavor. Over years of aging, the whiskey interacts with the wood, extracting flavor compounds like vanillin and tannins. Additionally, slow oxidation through the cask allows for further chemical reactions that contribute to the whiskey's color and taste profile.

Types of Whiskey

Whiskey is is made in many places the world over and in each it tends to be fairly strictly regulated. Governments receive significant tax revenue from the duties on whiskey (often around (2/3 of a bottle's final cost are taxes), and as a consequence are very keen on governing the quality and labeling of those products. For example, you can find the United States Department of the Treasury Beverage Alcohol Manual here. Imagine a world where Bourbon could be made in Venezuela or Scotch claimed to me manufactured in Russia, inconceivable. The main varieties of whiskey that you'll find are:

American Whiskey

The 50 states produce a huge variety of different whiskey styles under a variety of processes. These are all separately regulated terms. 

Bourbon Whiskey

• Produced in the United States (Yes not just in Kentucky!)
• Not exceeding 80% ABV (alcohol by volume) 
• Fermented mash contains at least 51% CORN 
• Stored at not more than 62.5% ABV in charred new oak containers

Rye, Wheat, Malt, or Corn Whiskey

• The same requirements as Bourbon but substituting the named grain for at least 51% of the mash bill. 
• Corn whiskey interestingly enough is not subjected to charred containers and can be aged in previously used casks as well. Mellow Corn be praised!

"Straight" Whiskey

In the American system, appending the word straight to a previously mentioned style means that the given spirit has been aged at least 2 years or more (though they must mention the exact age on the label unless the whiskey is at least four years old). Straight whiskeys can be a mixture of two or more straight whiskies of the same variety produced within the same state. If a mixture across state lines, you'll see them referred to as a "Blend of Straight [bourbon/rye/whatever] whiskies". Straight whiskies can also be called "bonded" if they meet a few additional criteria. To learn more about bottled-in-bond and why we love it so much, see this post.

There are so so many different major brands without even scratching the surface of the American craft movement.

Canadian Whiskey

Regulatory Definition: Canadian Whiskies are typically blends of whiskey made from a single grain (corn and rye are most common, though cheap American corn has taken over most of the market). They are distilled to between 180 and 190 proof which, resulting in few congener by-products (such as fusel alcohol, aldehydes, and esters) and consequently a lighter taste.

• Mash of cereal grains or malted grains, mashed distilled, and aged in Canada
• Aged in small wood for not less than 3 years, up to six months of that can be in containers other than small wood
• Have taste, aroma, and character generally attributed to Canadian Whiskey
• Only caramel is allowed for coloring
• Be of at least 40% ABV when bottled

Small wood is a wood cask or barrel no greater than 750 liters in capacity.

Known For: A sweet and mild taste, light and drinkable  

Example Brands: Crown Royal, Found North (Yes we know they're an American blender of Maple Juice, it's good stuff!)

Irish Whiskey

History: Once the most popular spirit in the word, Whiskey made on the Emerald Isle is still well known and famous for its smooth flavors. At it's height in the 1880s, Irish whiskey demanded a 25% premium over whiskies of other origins owing to the quality of the primarily pot still craft process. Strangely enough, the invention of an Irishman, Aeneas Coffey - the inventory of the still category of the same name, is somewhat to blame for the decline of Irelands Whiskey leadership. The Coffey still could be operated continuously and produce higher proof distillate than the batch based pot stills popular with John Jameson, William Jameson, John Powers and George Roe (the big four Irish distillers). This made them significantly cheaper to operate, albeit at the cost of boiling off some of the flavoring chemicals from the mash.  Cheap whiskey gained share over "pure put" Irish whiskey and a series of civil and trade disputes hindered exports until American Prohibition all but killed the industry both home and in Ireland. From a low of two distilleries operated by the same company, Irish Distillers, a revival has begun its slow burn from the 1990s to date with the upshot that now there are around 25 Irish producers in operation. 

Regulatory Definition: Irish whiskey is a protected European Geographical Indication (GI) under Regulation (EC) No 110/2008. The Irish Department of Agriculture's technical file sets the full specifications to allow for a spirit to be labeled or marketed as "Irish Whiskey". Key  Requirements:

• Be distilled and matured on the island of Ireland (comprising the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland) from a mash of malted cereals with or without whole grains of other cereals
• The mash must be saccharified by the diastase of malt contained therein, with or without other natural enzymes - The use of both malted and unmalted grains is unique to Irish Whiskey
• Fermented by the action of yeast
• Distilled at an alcoholic strength of less than 94.8% alcohol by volume in such a way that the distillate has an aroma and taste derived from the materials used and only plain water and caramel color can be added 
• Subject to the maturation of the final distillate for at least three years in wooden casks, such as oak, not exceeding 700 litres (185 US gal; 154 imp gal) capacity
• Retain the color, aroma and taste derived from the production process referred to above
• Have a minimum alcoholic by volume content of 40% once bottled

Just as American Whiskey has further protections for specific verbiage, Irish law protects the following terms:

• Pot Still Irish Whiskey - contains a minimum of 30% malted barley and a minimum of 30$ unmalted barley in its mash bill and be distilled on a pot still. This creates a creamy mouthfeel and distinctive spicy flavor.
• Malt Irish Whiskey - made from 100% malted barley in a pot still
• Irish Grain Whiskey - made from malted barley (not exceeding 30%) and includes whole unmalted cereals usually maize, wheat or barley., distilled using a Coffey or column still 

Known For: Light and Smooth texture, notes of fruit. Little to no smokiness or peat

Example Brands: Jameson, Tullamore Dew, Spot Whiskey

Scotch Whisky 

History: Following a broad adoption of the Coffey or column still, whisky production in Scotland has grown to dominate the globe. Scotland has five whisky producing regions, each with it's own distinctive character:

1. Campbelltown - A small western coastal town with three operating distilleries, known for fruity and smoky flavors. Example: Glen Scotia
2. Highlands - The largest region with over 30 distilleries and a similarly broad spectrum of flavors from fruity or spicy to sweet and malty. Glenmorangie
3. Islay - From the island sharing the same name, Islay is known for strong peat and smoke flavor though a few of the northern distilleries are known to be more mossy or briney as opposed to smoky. Bunnahabhain
4. Lowlands - Covering much of the central belt, this region is known for soft and smooth flavors with floral tones and sweet finish Auchentoshan
5. Speyside - Alongside the river Spey and once considered part of the Highlands, this region is relatively knew, having been created in 2014 to hold a staggering 50 distilleries. It was formerly part of the Highlands region and many distilleries may still label their products accordingly. Taste and flavor will vary. Balvenie

Regulatory Definition:

• Must be produced in Scotland from start to finish (mashing, distillation, and aging)
• Made from primarily malted barley
• Maximum alcohol strength below 94.8% ABV (alcohol by volume) to retain the flavors from the grain coming off the still
• Matured in Oak casks with a capacity not exceeding 700 liters for at least 3  years.. These casks can be new or used, with used casks previously holding other spirits like sherry or bourbon sometimes employed
• No artificial coloring or flavorings are allowed, with only water and plain caramel coloring permitted for adjustments after barreling
• Minimum Bottled ABV of 80 proof or 40% ABV

You can find the full government documentation for Scotch here.

Known For: Intense Smoky flavor, though the different regions of Scotland have a wide variety of final flavor profiles from sweet to floral.

Japanese Whisky

Though spirits branded as Japanese Whisky are nothing new, "Japanese Whisky" didn't have a legal definition until February 6th, 2021 when the Japan Spirits & Liqueur maker's Associate setup the first entirely voluntary requirements. The government of Japan does not enforce any of these standards and they apply only to members of that industry group. That being said, many of Japan's biggest distillers have signed on including Suntory and Nikka. For many years, much of Japanese whisky was imported whisky, blended, down-proofed or simply bottled in country without any additive processing or aging. 

History: While whisky has been made in Japan since around 1870, the real legacy begins with commercial production in 1923 when Yamazaki, the first distillery, was founded. Masataka Taketsuru, an English speaking chemist who studied at the University of Glasgow, is largely credited with inventing the modern concept of Japanese Whisky by studying the techniques of Scotch Makers. Though rice liquor had been made locally for hundreds of years, Masataka Taketsuru was one of the first to implement the traditional western formula in Japan, first at Yamazaki and latera at Nikka. Japanese Whisky stayed mostly a local phenomenon until 2001 when Nikka's Yoichi 10-year Single Malt won Whiskey Magazine's Best of the Best award.

Regulatory Definition: 

With that backstory, it is no surprise that the newly minted requirements for Japanese Whisky closely mirror those of Scotch:

• Must be produced from Grain, including malted barley
• Must be Mashed, fermented, distilled, and matured in Japan for a period of at least 3 years
• Casks used for aging must be made of wood (not necessarily oak though!) and no larger than 700 liters
• Bottling proof must be at least 40%ABV and distillation proof cannot excess 95% ABV
• Only caramel coloring is permitted

Known For: A light and delicate flavor, often including floral and fruity notes, potentially sweet, and almost never Smokey. Though these subtle flavors can easily get lost in cocktails, the vast majority of Japanese Whisky is either consumed straight or in the ever famous Japanese Whisky Highballs.

Example Brands: Suntory (Hibiki, Yamazaki, Hakushu), Nikka (Taketsuru, Yoichi), and Chichibu. 

For a highball, the easy to find and affordable Suntory Toki is a great first step while I recommend Nikka's Coffey Malt for Scotch drinkers and Coffey Grain for Bourbon drinkers  as a lillypad into the world of Japanese whisky. 

Indian Whisky

India in 2023 added legal definitions for "Single Malt" and "Single Grain" whiskey, though the quality outside of major distilleries is somewhat suspect. Amrut distilleries pioneered the use of malted grain as an input in 1986 instead of the far cheaper molasses based spirits commonly available. Interestingly, due to differences in climate, Indian distillers may express that whiskey ages significantly faster in India as opposed to the more temperate Scotland, perhaps even three to six times as fast. For this reason, you'll likely not find much Indian whiskey older than 8 years. Due to the prevalence of molasses based spirits (essentially rum) on the export market, some "Indian Whiskey" is better passed over. I would stick to the brands below unless you plan on researching a bottle in depth. 

Example Brands: Amrut, Rampur, Paul John

Outro

With that, I bid you cheers and responsible fun. The world of Whiskey is vast and a true delight to explore. Some you'll love. Some you'll hate. All in all, the joy comes with sharing that journey with those you meet along the way.